History of Ukraine

The history of Ukraine spans back for over thousands of years. Prehistoric Ukraine, as a part of the Pontic steppe in Eastern Europe, played an important role in Eurasian cultural events, including the spread of the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages, Indo-European migrations, and the domestication of the horse.^[1]^[2]^[3]

A part of Scythia in antiquity, Ukraine was largely settled by Greuthungi, Getae, Goths, and Huns in the Migration Period, while southern parts of Ukraine were previously colonized by Greeks and then Romans. In the Early Middle Ages it was also a site of early Slavic expansion.

Ukraine enters into written history with the establishment of the medieval state of Kievan Rus'. In Dnieper Ukraine, the tribe of Polans served as the organizers of Kievan Rus' state, beginning to name themself and their land Rus' in 9th century, a word that probably derived from Varangians, who laid the foundation of the state itself.^[4]^[5]^[6] It emerged as one of the most powerful and advanced nations of Europe at that time, with Kyiv meeting its golden age and Christianization under Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav the Wise. Kievan Rus' started to disintegrate in High Middle Ages, with Kievan monarchs competing and fighting over the throne in the core Rus' land,^[7] while experiencing Turkic raids from Southern Ukraine. In 13th century Kievan Rus' was destroyed by the Mongol invasion, leaving it's core in Dnieper Ukraine absolutely devastated. Principality of Galicia-Volhynia then succeed Rus', and became Kingdom of Ruthenia (Kingdom of Rus') under King Daniel.

In 14th and 15th centuries, majority of Ukrainian territories became part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia, while Galicia and Zakarpattia came under Polish and Hungarian rule. Lithuania kept the local Ruthenian traditions, and was gradually influenced by Ruthenian language, law and culture, until Lithuania itself came under Polish influence, following the Union of Krewo and Union of Lublin, resulting in two countries merging into Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, leaving Ukrainian lands under the dominance of Polish crown. Meanwhile Southern Ukraine was dominated by Golden Horde and then Crimean Khanate, which came under protection of the Ottoman Empire, major regional power in and around Black Sea, which also had some of its own directly-administrated areas as well.

After a 1648 rebellion of the Cossacks against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, they established a sovereign Cossack Hetmanate. In January 1654 Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky agreed to the Treaty of Pereyaslav. The exact nature of the relationship established by this treaty between the Cossack Hetmanate and Russia remains a matter of scholarly controversy.^[8] The agreement precipitated the Russo-Polish War of 1654–67 and the failed Treaty of Hadiach, which would have formed a Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth. In consequence, by the Treaty of Perpetual Peace, signed in 1686, the eastern portion of Ukraine (east of the Dnieper River) was ruled by Cossacks dependent on the Russian rule.^[9]^: 199

During the Great Northern War, Hetman Ivan Mazepa allied with Charles XII of Sweden in 1708. However, the Great Frost of 1709 greatly weakened the Swedish army. Following the Battle of Poltava later in 1709, there was a diminishment in Hetmanate power, culminating with the disestablishment of the Cossack Hetmanate in the 1760s and the destruction of the Zaporozhian Sich in the 1770s. Following the Partitions of Poland (1772–1795) and the Russian conquest of the Crimean Khanate, the Russian Empire and Habsburg Austria were in control of all the territories that constitute present-day Ukraine for over a hundred years. Ukrainian nationalism developed in the 19th century.

A chaotic period of warfare ensued after the Russian Revolutions of 1917, as well as a simultaneous war in the former Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria following the dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy after World War I. The Soviet–Ukrainian War (1917–1921) followed, in which the Bolshevik Red Army established control in late 1919.^[9]^: 537 The Ukrainian Bolsheviks, who had defeated the national government in Kiev, established the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which on 30 December 1922 became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. Initial Soviet policy on the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian culture made Ukrainian the official language of administration and schools. Policy in the 1930s turned to Russification. In 1932 and 1933, millions of people in Ukraine, mostly peasants, starved to death in a devastating famine, known as the Holodomor. It is estimated that 6 to 8 million people died from hunger in the Soviet Union during this period, of whom 4 to 5 million were Ukrainians.^[10]^{: §§ 8.1.3}

After the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, the Ukrainian SSR's territory expanded westward. Axis armies occupied Ukraine from 1941 to 1944. During World War II, elements of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army fought for Ukrainian independence against both Germany and the Soviet Union, while other elements collaborated with the Nazis, assisting them in carrying out the Holocaust in Ukraine and their oppression of Poles. In 1953, Nikita Khrushchev, ethnic Russian former head of the Communist Party of Ukraine, succeeded as head of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and enabled more political and cultural freedom, which led to a Ukrainian revival. In 1954 the republic expanded to the south with the transfer of Crimea from Russia. Nevertheless, political repressions against poets, historians and other intellectuals continued, as in all other parts of the USSR.

Ukraine became independent when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. This started a period of transition to a market economy, in which Ukraine suffered an eight-year recession.^[11] Subsequently however, the economy experienced a high increase in GDP growth until it plunged during the Great Recession.^[12]

A prolonged political crisis began on 21 November 2013, when president Viktor Yanukovych suspended preparations for the implementation of an association agreement with the European Union, instead choosing to seek closer ties with Russia. This decision resulted in the Euromaidan protests and later, the Revolution of Dignity. Yanukovych was then impeached by the Ukrainian parliament in February 2014. On 20 February, the Russo-Ukrainian War began when Russian forces entered Crimea. Soon after, pro-Russian unrest enveloped the largely Russophone eastern and southern regions of Ukraine, from where Yanukovych had drawn most of his support. An internationally unrecognized referendum in the largely ethnic Russian Ukrainian autonomous region of Crimea was held and Crimea was de facto annexed by Russia on 18 March 2014. The War in Donbas began in Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts of Ukraine involving the Russian military. The war continued until 24 February 2022, when Russia launched a major invasion of much of the country.

Prehistory

Paleolithic period

1.4 million year old stone tools from Korolevo, western Ukraine, are the earliest securely dated hominin presence in Europe.^[13] Settlement in Ukraine by members of the genus Homo has been documented into distant Paleolithic prehistory. The Neanderthals are associated with the Molodova archaeological sites (45,000–43,000 BC), which include a mammoth bone dwelling.^[14]^[15] The earliest documented evidence of modern humans are found in Gravettian settlements dating to 32,000 BC in the Buran-Kaya cave site of the Crimean Mountains.^[16]^[17]

Neolithic and Bronze Age

Extent of the Chalcolithic Yamna or "pit grave" culture, 3rd millennium BC

In the late Neolithic times, the Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture flourished from about 4,500–3,000 BC.^[18] The Copper Age people of the Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture resided in the western part, and the Sredny Stog Culture further east, succeeded by the early Bronze Age Yamna ("Kurgan") culture of the Pontic steppes, and by the Catacomb culture in the 3rd millennium BC.^{[citation needed]}

Cucuteni-Trypillia pottery
Maidanetske, Cucuteni-Trypillia culture, 3800 BC
Yamnaya stone stele, c. 2600 BC

Antiquity

Scythian settlement, Greek colonization, and Roman domination

During the Iron Age, these peoples were followed by the Dacians as well as nomadic peoples such as the Cimmerians (archaeological Novocherkassk culture), Scythians and Sarmatians. The Scythian kingdom existed here from 750 to 250 BC.^[19] In the Scythian campaign of Darius the Great in 513 BC, the Achaemenid Persian army subjugated several Thracian peoples, and virtually all other regions along the European part of the Black Sea, such as parts of nowadays Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, before it returned to Asia Minor.^[20]^[21]

Greeks colonized Crimea and other coastal areas of Ukraine in the 7th or 6th century BC during the Archaic period.^[22] The culturally Greek Bosporan Kingdom thrived until it was invaded and occupied by the Goths and Huns in the 4th century AD.^[23] From 62 to 68 AD the Roman Empire briefly annexed the kingdom under Emperor Nero when he deposed the Bosporan king Tiberius Julius Cotys I.^[24] Afterwards the Bosporan Kingdom was made into a Roman client state with a Roman military presence during the middle of the 1st century AD.^[25]^[26]

Arrival of the Goths and Huns

Territory under Hunnic control, c. 450 AD

In the 3rd century AD, the Goths migrated into the lands of modern Ukraine around 250–375 AD, which they called Oium, corresponding to the archaeological Chernyakhov culture.^[27] The Ostrogoths stayed in the area but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s. North of the Ostrogothic kingdom was the Kiev culture, flourishing from the 2nd–5th centuries, when it was also overrun by the Huns. After they helped defeat the Huns at the battle of Nedao in 454, the Ostrogoths were allowed by the Romans to settle in Pannonia.^{[citation needed]} Along with other ancient Greek colonies founded in the 6th century BC on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea, the colonies of Tyras, Olbia, and Hermonassa continued as Roman and Byzantine (Eastern Roman) cities until the 6th century AD.^{[citation needed]} Gothic influence waned by the end of the 5th century AD, when the Eastern Roman Empire reaffirmed its control and influence over the region.^[28] The Hunnic king Gordas ruled the Bosporan kingdom in the early 6th century AD and maintained good relations with Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I, but the latter invaded and occupied the country once Gordas was killed in a revolt in 527 AD.^[29] As late as the 12th century AD the Eastern Roman emperors claimed dominion over the territory of Cimmerian Bosporos.^[30]

Middle Ages

Early Slavs

Following the power vacuum left by the fall of Hunnic and Gothic dominance, the Early Slavs began to expand over much of the territory that is now Ukraine during the 5th century, continuing their migration into the Balkans in the 6th century. The exact origins of the Early Slavs remain uncertain, though several theories suggest they may have originated near the Polesia region, a marshy area between modern-day Belarus and Ukraine. This period marks a transition from the Kyiv culture to the establishment of Slavic tribes across Eastern Europe.^[31]

In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Antes Union (a tribal confederation) is generally believed to have been situated in present-day Ukraine. The Antes are considered ancestors of several Slavic tribes that would later form the Ukrainians, including the Polans, Severians, Drevlyans, White Croats, Dulebes, Ulichians, and Tiverians. The migration of these tribes from Ukraine throughout the Balkans contributed to the foundation of several South Slavic nations, while northern migrations, reaching as far as Lake Ilmen, gave rise to the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichs, and Radimichs.^[32]

The collapse of the Antes Union in 602, following a devastating raid by the Pannonian Avars, led to a fragmentation of the early Slavic federation. Despite this, many of these tribes maintained their distinct identities until the formation of larger political entities in the early second millennium, such as Kievan Rus', which began to consolidate Slavic lands.^[32]

The Early Slavs were primarily agrarian, relying on subsistence farming, and lived in semi-nomadic communities. Over time, they developed a complex social structure, with local chieftains leading tribal groups. They also practiced paganism, with a pantheon of gods tied to nature, such as Perun (god of thunder) and Dazhbog (sun god). By the time of the Antes Union's decline, the cultural and religious practices of the Slavs had already begun to influence neighboring peoples, laying the groundwork for the Slavic cultural sphere that would emerge later in Eastern and Southeastern Europe.^[33]

Arrival of the Bulgars and Khazars

In the 7th century, the territory of modern Ukraine was at the core of the state of the Bulgars, often referred to as Old Great Bulgaria. This state, with its capital at Phanagoria (located in what is now the Taman Peninsula), controlled a significant part of the northern Black Sea region. The Bulgars, a semi-nomadic people from Central Asia, were known for their sophisticated society, military organization, and far-reaching influence.^[27]

By the end of the 7th century, the Bulgars faced increasing pressure from neighboring tribes and empires. Most of the Bulgar tribes migrated in various directions—some settled in the Balkans, where they eventually established the First Bulgarian Empire. Other groups moved towards the Volga region, forming Volga Bulgaria, which became a prominent center of trade and culture. The remaining parts of Old Great Bulgaria were eventually absorbed by the Khazars, another semi-nomadic people from Central Asia.^[27]

The Khazars founded the Khazar Khaganate, a powerful and influential state near the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus. The Khaganate's territory expanded to include parts of modern-day western Kazakhstan, eastern Ukraine, southern Russia, and northern Azerbaijan. The Khazars were noted for their religious tolerance and political pragmatism, famously adopting Judaism as their state religion in the 8th century, although Christianity, Islam, and other faiths were also practiced within their borders.^[34]

The Khazars played a key role in the politics and economy of Eastern Europe and the Pontic-Caspian steppe. Their control over trade routes contributed to the establishment of the Pax Khazarica, a period of relative peace and stability that fostered safe long-distance trade. This stability allowed traders, including the Radhanite Jews, to operate along vast routes that stretched from China to the Byzantine Empire. These trade routes facilitated the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas across Eurasia.^[35]

Kievan Rus' (9th century–1240)

Origin and foundation of state

"Rus' land" from the Primary Chronicle, a copy of the Laurentian Codex

Both the origin of the Kievan state and its name remain matters of debate among historians. According to one prominent theory, the name Rus' may have originated from the Scandinavian people known as the Varangians, who engaged in trade and military expeditions in Eastern Europe. This theory, often called the 'Norman theory', suggests that the term Rus' was initially associated with these northern warriors and traders.^[36] However, an alternative 'anti-Norman theory' suggests that the name Rus' has local Slavic or Baltic origins and developed independently of Scandinavian influence. Supporters of this theory argue that the Eastern Slavs already had their own political structures and were moving toward unification long before the arrival of the Varangians. According to this view, the term Rus' might be connected to the name of the Ros River, which flows through modern-day Ukraine and along which Slavic tribes once lived. Thus, Rus' could have referred to the people of a specific region or a union of tribes, rather than foreign conquerors.^[37]

The first reliable mention of the Rus' dates back to the year 839 in the Frankish chronicle Annals of St. Bertin, where it is written that members of an embassy arriving from the north to the Byzantine Empire called themselves Rus'.^[38] The second notable mention of the Rus' occurred in 860, when they launched a bold and unexpected naval raid on Constantinople from the territory around present-day Kiev. Commanding a fleet across the Black Sea, the Rus' forces struck at the very heart of the Byzantine Empire, quickly reaching the city’s outskirts. According to accounts from Greek eyewitnesses, the Rus' not only managed to pillage the suburbs of Constantinople but also instilled widespread fear among its residents. The Byzantine defenses were caught unprepared, and the Rus' were able to withdraw without encountering serious resistance.^[39]

The earliest source about the history of the Middle Dnieper region is the Tale of Bygone Years (Primary Chronicle), which was written no earlier than the 11th century. In its "legendary" part, it narrates the Rus' raid on Constantinople and the formation of a state with Kiev as its capital in the second half of the 9th century. The chronicle, in particular, mentions the names of the leaders of the raid on Constantinople — Askold and Dir — and calls them retainers of the Scandinavian Rurik dynasty. According to the chronicle, a representative of this dynasty, Oleg the Wise, allegedly came to Kiev from Novgorod in 882, killed Askold and Dir, and took control of the Kiev state. This narrative contains several errors (for example, the year of the raid on Constantinople is incorrectly dated as 867) and does not align with archaeological evidence, which confirms the establishment of Novgorod only in the 10th century. Therefore, modern historians believe that the stories about the 9th century presented in the chronicle are highly questionable and likely constructed by the author.^[40]^[41]

Scholars associate the state-building processes in the Middle Dnieper region with the emergence of the well-known trade route from Scandinavia to Constantinople, known as the "Route from the Varangians to the Greeks". A significant portion of this route passed through the Dnieper river, and Kiev was an important transshipment point, allowing control over trade along the Dnieper, Pripyat, and Desna rivers.^[43] Middle Dnieper region began to serve as a political, cultural, and economic center of the East Slavic world, and became referred to as the Rus' land, in the narrow sense of this term.^[42] The Tale of Bygone Years portrays the East Slavic tribe of Polans, the inhabitants of Middle Dnieper which adopted the name Rus' for their land, as the most civilized among the East Slavs. Therefore, they played a central role in the formation of a new tribal union, which began to form around Kiev.^[44]

From the first half of the 10th century, the first confirmed ruler of the Kiev state from foreign sources was Igor the Old, whom the Primary Chronicle calls a prince. The Chronicle's information about the governance of the state during this time is considered more reliable. The princely retinue played a significant role in governance, accompanying rulers on campaigns and collecting tribute from the conquered local Slavic tribes. The collected tribute (furs, honey, hides, wax, slaves) was mainly exported to Byzantium, and the proceeds were spent on purchasing weapons, luxury items, and wine, which made up the core of imports. When trade conditions no longer satisfied the prince, he launched an unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople in 941, which led to a new Rus-Byzantine trade treaty in 944. The Tale of Bygone Years tells of Igor's attempt to extract more tribute from the subdued Slavs, which led to a rebellion by the Drevlians, who killed him in 945.^[45]

Following the death of Igor in 945, his widow, Princess Olga, assumed the role of regent for their young son, Sviatoslav, who was not yet of age to rule. Olga is best known for her calculated and fierce retaliation against the Drevlians. Her campaign of revenge culminated in the annexation of their lands into the expanding domain of Kievan Rus'. Olga also implemented significant reforms in governance, particularly by overhauling the tribute collection system known as poliudie. This new structure made revenue collection more systematic and centralized, reducing the likelihood of rebellion by ensuring a smoother distribution of power. In a landmark decision, Olga became the first ruler of Kievan Rus' to embrace Christianity around 957 during a diplomatic visit to Constantinople. However, despite her conversion, the state under her rule remained predominantly pagan, with Christianity gaining influence only later under her descendants.^[46]^[47]

Sviatoslav, having become the ruler of Kievan Rus', began an active expansionist military campaign. His most notable achievement was the decisive defeat of the Khazar Khaganate, a once-dominant regional power that had controlled key trade routes for centuries. The fall of the Khazars opened the door for Kievan Rus' to extend its influence into the Caucasus and other. In addition to his campaigns in the east, Sviatoslav waged numerous battles against the Byzantine Empire, seeking to establish Kievan Rus' as a formidable force in the Balkans. His primary ambition was to create a lasting base in Bulgaria, which would strengthen his strategic position in southeastern Europe. However, his Balkan ambitions were thwarted after a Byzantine counterattack. In 972, while returning from his Balkan campaign, Sviatoslav was ambushed and killed by the Pechenegs near the Dnieper river.^[48]^[49]

After Sviatoslav's death, a power struggle ensued among his sons. Yaropolk, Sviatoslav's eldest son, became the Grand Prince of Kiev after his father's death and pursued the consolidation of power across the vast territory, which led to conflicts with his brothers. At the time, Oleg, Sviatoslav's second son, governed the Drevlian lands, and the rivalry between him and Yaropolk escalated into open warfare. During one of their clashes around 977, Oleg was killed, further intensifying the conflict. Initially, Vladimir, Sviatoslav's younger son, fled to avoid being caught in the conflict. However, after Oleg's death, he returned with a Varangian army. By 980, Vladimir defeated Yaropolk and consolidated his power, becoming the sole ruler of Kievan Rus'.^[50]

Golden Age and Christianisation

During the reign of Vladimir the Great, Kievan Rus' expanded significantly, notably through the conquest and annexation of Red Ruthenia, Transcarpathia, and Korsun. These territorial gains made Kievan Rus' the largest state in Europe at the time, covering over 800,000 square kilometers and boasting a population of more than 5 million. The socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus' was similar to that of other European states of the period, characterized by a natural economy, communal land ownership, and reliance on slash-and-burn agriculture and animal husbandry.^[51]

Vladimir reformed local governance by abolishing the traditional tribal autonomies and installing his own appointed governors, further centralizing his authority. Under his rule, Kiev emerged as one of the wealthiest commercial centers in Europe during the 10th and 11th centuries, benefiting from its strategic location on trade routes and its growing political influence. Initially, Vladimir supported the worship of Slavic deities such as Perun, but in 988, he made a historic decision to convert Kievan Rus' to Christianity, adopting Eastern Orthodoxy from the Byzantine Empire. He personally led the mass baptism of the people of Kiev in the Pochaina river and built the first stone church in Kievan Rus' — Church of the Tithes. He also introduced the Charter on Church Courts and Tithes, securing a strong relationship between the church and state. Unlike the earlier attempts of his grandmother, Princess Olga, Vladimir's reforms had a lasting impact, deeply influencing the religious and cultural development of the region.^[52]

Vladimir's rule also saw administrative, monetary, and military reforms. He appointed governors and entrusted his sons with ruling major cities, minted his own gold and silver coins, and granted borderlands to loyal vassals in exchange for military defense. To protect the realm, Vladimir oversaw the construction of an extensive system of defensive fortifications, known as the Serpent's Walls, which stretched for 1,000 kilometers, safeguarding Kievan Rus' from external threats.^[53]

Despite these accomplishments, after Vladimir's death in 1015, Kievan Rus' entered a turbulent period of internal strife, as his sons fought for control. This era of internecine conflict lasted until 1019, when Yaroslav the Wise emerged victorious and assumed the throne. Ruling jointly with his brother Mstislav until 1036, Yaroslav presided over what is often regarded as the golden age of Kievan Rus'. One of Yaroslav's key achievements was his decisive defeat of the Pechenegs, who had long been a threat to the state. To commemorate this victory, Yaroslav ordered the construction of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, a structure that still stands as a symbol of this prosperous era. He also founded the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra and supported the election of Hilarion of Kiev as the Kiev Metropolitan, marking a significant step in the independence of the Kievan church. Yaroslav's reign was also notable for the introduction of the first written legal code — Rus' Truth, which established a foundation for legal governance in the state. Additionally, Yaroslav engaged in extensive marriage diplomacy, forming alliances by marrying off his daughters to European royalty.^[54]^[55] However, after Yaroslav's death, Kievan Rus' began to fragment, as his sons divided the territory among themselves, leading to further internecine conflicts and the eventual decline of centralized power.^[56]

Feudal fragmentation

The feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus' began in the late 11th century, driven by a complex interplay of internal and external factors. One significant contributor was the rotational succession system, which allowed power to pass among male relatives rather than following a direct line from father to son. This system often sparked conflicts, as competing claims to power emerged. As princes were frequently granted specific territories, the rise of autonomous principalities became evident. Regional cities such as Chernihiv, Polotsk, and Novgorod gained power and asserted their independence, with local elites increasing their influence. By this period, the authority of the Grand Prince of Kiev was notably weakening. Regional princes, bolstered by local resources and armies, began to resist central control. Additionally, the vast geography and economic diversity of Rus' impeded unity, as various regions developed their own trade routes and systems. External threats from nomadic groups, such as the Pechenegs and Polovtsy (Cumans), further exacerbated regionalism, compelling local rulers to focus on defending their territories.^[57]^[58]

Following the death of Yaroslav the Wise, his sons divided the lands among themselves, significantly contributing to political fragmentation. Although his succession plan aimed to prevent conflict, it ultimately sowed the seeds of feudal division. The Council of Liubech, convened by several princes, including Vladimir Monomakh, sought to settle disputes and clarify the inheritance of principalities. This agreement formalized the division of Kievan Rus' into regional hereditary principalities, effectively legalizing the fragmentation. The adage "Let everyone hold his own" emerged, signifying that each prince would govern his own territory without interference from others.^[59]

Vladimir Monomakh, who served as Grand Prince of Kiev from 1113 to 1125, is remembered as one of Kievan Rus' most capable leaders. He ascended the throne amid internal strife and external threats, yet worked diligently to stabilize the fragmented territories of Rus'. Monomakh's reign was marked by relative unity, achieved through efforts to reduce feuds among princes and strengthen central authority. His military successes, particularly against the Polovtsy (Cumans), secured the region's borders. Diplomatically, he forged strong ties with Europe, notably through his marriage to Gytha of Wessex, the daughter of English King Harold II. An educated ruler, Monomakh authored The Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh, which offers insights on governance, morality, and leadership. His reign is often regarded as one of the last periods of unity before Rus' descended further into division.^[60]^[61]

Monomakh's son, Mstislav the Great, managed to maintain some semblance of unity during his reign (1125–1132). However, following his death, the principality fractured. The division of lands among Monomakh's sons and other relatives led to the emergence of multiple competing power centers.^[62]^[63] The process of feudal fragmentation marked a turning point in the history of Rus', culminating in its eventual decline and the rise of smaller, more independent states. These would later evolve into the medieval powers of Kingdom of Ruthenia, Principality of Polotsk, Novgorod Republic and others.^[64]^[65]^[66]^[67]

Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

In 1222, new nomads, the warlike Mongols, arrived in the Black Sea steppes and defeated the Polovtsians, as part of the Mongol Empire's westward expansion. The Polovtsians, who had family ties with the Rus' princes, turned to Rus' for help. A joint Rus'-Polovtsian force marched into the steppes, where the Battle of the Kalka River took place in 1223. As a result, the Mongols retreated east for about 15 years after this.^[68]

In the late 1230s, the Mongols returned with significantly larger forces under the leadership of Batu Khan and his general Subutai. The Mongols first attacked the eastern regions of state, they used superior siege tactics, overwhelming local defenses. Between 1239 and 1240, the Mongols shifted their focus to the southern territories. In 1240, they laid siege to Kiev, which ultimately fell after a brutal assault, marking the definitive collapse of Kievan Rus' as a unified political entity.^[69]^[70]

As a result of this invasion, Kievan Rus' was extensively destroyed, depopulated, and fragmented. Following their conquest, the Mongols established dominion over the region through the Golden Horde, transforming most of the Rus' principalities into tributary states. Under Mongol rule, the Rus' were required to pay heavy taxes and submit to Mongol authority. The invasion severely stunted the region's political, cultural, and economic development, and the effects of Mongol domination reverberated for centuries. Despite its devastation, the Eastern Orthodox Church played an important role in preserving cultural identity during Mongol rule.^[71]^[72]

Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia

The Principality, later Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia (Ruthenia) emerged from the disintegration of Kievan Rus'. Its rulers continued the political and cultural legacy of Kiev, preserving the traditions and governance of the Rus' state even as Kiev fell to Mongol control.^[73]^[74] Previously, Vladimir the Great had established the cities of Halych and Volodymyr as regional capitals, setting the foundation for future political entities in the region. The area was originally inhabited by the Dulebes, Tivertsi and White Croats tribes.^[75] Initially, Volhynia and Galicia existed as separate principalities, each ruled by descendants of Yaroslav the Wise. Galicia was governed by the Rostislavich dynasty, while Volhynia was initially ruled by the Igorevichs and eventually by the Iziaslavich dynasty.^[76] During the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153–1187), Galicia expanded its influence, extending as far as the Black Sea.^[76]

Rivalry between the rulers of these principalities often revolved around efforts to assert dominance over one another. This conflict was finally resolved by Roman the Great (1197–1205), who not only succeeded in uniting Galicia and Volhynia under his rule but also briefly extended his authority over Kiev. Roman's consolidation of power laid the groundwork for the rise of the Galicia–Volhynia, which became a significant political force in the region.^[77]

Following Roman's death, a period of unrest ensued, lasting until his son Daniel Romanovich reclaimed the throne in 1238. Daniel successfully restored his father's state, including Kiev. In 1240, the Mongol Empire, led by Batu Khan, unleashed devastating invasions across Kievan Rus'. Cities like Kiev were sacked, leaving much of the region in ruins. Daniel's decisive victory at the Battle of Yaroslavl in 1245 ended internal conflicts and firmly secured his control over the state. By 1246, Daniel was compelled to recognize Mongol supremacy to safeguard his state. Though this submission was humiliating, it allowed Daniel to retain some degree of autonomy, provided he paid tribute to the Mongol khan.^[78]

Despite this subjugation, Daniel remained determined to free Ruthenia from Mongol dominance. He sought support from Western Europe, forging diplomatic ties with the Papacy, Poland, Hungary, and the Holy Roman Empire. In 1253, Daniel was crowned King of Ruthenia (Latin: Rex Rusiae) by a papal legate in Drohiczyn, receiving formal recognition from Pope Innocent IV. This coronation symbolized Ruthenia's alignment with Western Europe and its Christian identity, while still adhering to the Orthodox faith. The crowning also carried the hope of an anti-Mongol alliance, though such a coalition never materialized due to political divisions in Western Europe.^[79] King Daniel also founded numerous cities that became hubs of trade, culture, and military strength. Among his most notable achievements were the establishments of Lviv, named after his son Lev, and Kholm. These urban centers not only revitalized the kingdom's economy but also helped Daniel consolidate his political authority over the region.^[80]^[81]

After King Daniel Romanovych's death in 1264, the kingdom was inherited by his son, Lev Danylovych. Lev I ruled from 1269 to 1301 and relocated the capital from Kholm to Lviv. He continued his father's policies of defending the kingdom against external threats, particularly from the Mongols, while also striving to maintain alliances with Poland and Lithuania to counterbalance Mongol influence. Although Lev managed to preserve the state's territorial integrity, the kingdom's power gradually eroded under the relentless pressure from the Mongol Golden Horde and ongoing internal political challenges.^[82]^[83] Following Lev's death in 1301, his son, Yuri Lvovych, ascended the throne and ruled until 1308. During his reign, Yuri I succeeded in maintaining relative stability, yet the kingdom's political position had significantly weakened compared to the time of Daniel. Despite his efforts, Yuri's reign was short-lived, and after his death, the kingdom entered a period of fragmentation.^[84]

Yuri's sons, Andrew and Lev II, attempted to co-rule, but their efforts to sustain the kingdom's unity and strength ultimately failed. The Mongol Golden Horde continued to exert substantial influence over the weakened Kingdom of Ruthenia throughout the 14th century.^[85]^[86] After the deaths of the co-rulers around 1323, the kingdom found itself without strong leadership. Yuri II Boleslav, the last ruler of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, took power following the demise of the Romanovych line. Reigning from 1323 to 1340, he was a member of the Polish Piast dynasty, chosen as king due to his maternal connection to the Ruthenian royal family—his mother, Maria, was the daughter of Lev I.^[87] Upon ascending the throne, Boleslav converted to Orthodox Christianity and adopted the name Yuriy to garner support from the local Orthodox nobility. However, his reign was fraught with tension due to his Catholic background, which clashed with the predominantly Orthodox Ruthenian elite. During his rule, Yuriy II struggled to balance the competing interests of Poland, Lithuania, and the Mongol Golden Horde, while also introducing pro-Catholic policies that alienated the local nobility. His rule culminated in his assassination in 1340 by Ruthenian nobles discontented with his leadership. His death triggered a fierce power struggle between Poland and Lithuania for control over the region. Soon after, Galicia was annexed by Poland, and Volhynia fell under Lithuanian rule, marking the end of the independent Kingdom of Ruthenia.^[88]

Foreign domination

From the 13th century onwards, various parts of the coastline of what is now Ukraine were dominated by the Republic of Genoa, which established numerous colonies around the Black Sea. Many of these colonies were located in today's Odesa Oblast. The Genoese settlements were heavily fortified, protected by garrisons stationed within the fortresses, and served primarily to strengthen Genoa’s control over trade in the Black Sea region. Genoa's dominance persisted until the 15th century.^[89]^[90]^[91]

In 1322, Pope John XXII established a diocese in Caffa (modern-day Feodosia), separating it from the Diocese of Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing), which was the only Catholic presence in the Mongol-controlled territories at the time. For several centuries, the Caffa diocese served as the central Catholic authority from the Balkans to Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde.^[92]

Meanwhile, in southwestern Crimea, the Principality of Theodoro, also known as the Principality of Gothia, emerged as a small but important Byzantine successor state. Centered around its capital, Doros (modern-day Mangup), Theodoro was a multi-ethnic state with Greeks, Goths, and Alans, among others. It played a crucial role as a buffer between Genoese colonies and the Crimean Khanate. Theodoro maintained close ties with the Byzantine Empire and the Empire of Trebizond. However, in 1475, the Ottomans conquered the principality during their campaign to dominate the Black Sea region, incorporating it into their expanding empire.^{[citation needed]}

During the 14th century, Poland and Lithuania waged wars against Mongol invaders, gradually reclaiming territories. As a result, most of Ukraine came under the control of Poland and Lithuania. In particular, Red Ruthenia, parts of Volhynia, and Podolia were absorbed into the Kingdom of Poland. The Polish monarch adopted the title "lord and heir of Ruthenia" (Latin: Russiae dominus et Heres).^[93] Following the Battle of Blue Waters (1362/63), Lithuania gained control over Polotsk, Volhynia, Chernihiv, and Kyiv. The rulers of Lithuania then adopted the title "ruler of Rus’".^{[citation needed]}

Despite the political collapse of Kievan Rus' and the Kingdom of Ruthenia, their political, cultural, and religious traditions persisted under Lithuanian control. Ruthenian aristocrats, such as the Olelkovich family, integrated into the Lithuanian ruling elite, serving in positions of power within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as members of the duke's privy council, high-ranking military officers, and administrators.^[94] Although Lithuanian was the native language of the ruling elite, the primary written languages in the Grand Duchy were Latin, Old Church Slavonic, and Ruthenian. By the early modern period, East Slavonic Chancery language had been gradually replaced by Polish.^[95]

Eventually, Poland extended its influence over southwestern Ukraine. After the Union between Poland and Lithuania, Poles, Germans, Lithuanians, and Jews migrated to the region, displacing Ukrainians from positions of authority that they had shared with Lithuanians. This led to increased migration of Ukrainians toward central Ukraine. Polish migration, combined with policies of Polonization and other forms of repression, increasingly marginalized Ukrainians and intensified their cultural and political subjugation.^{[citation needed]}

In 1490, due to growing oppression by the Polish authorities, a series of rebellions broke out, led by Ukrainian leader Petro Mukha. His forces, which included early Cossacks, Hutsuls, and Moldavians (Romanians), launched a series of successful uprisings known as Mukha’s Rebellion. Supported by the Moldavian prince Stephen the Great, Mukha's forces captured several cities in Pokuttya and advanced as far west as Lviv, though they failed to seize the city.^[96]

The decline of the Golden Horde in the 15th century paved the way for the establishment of the Crimean Khanate, which controlled much of the Black Sea coastline and the southern steppes of Ukraine. From the early 16th century until the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate engaged in a vast slave trade, exporting approximately 2 million slaves from Russia and Ukraine to the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East between 1500 and 1700. The Khanate remained a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire until its dissolution by the Russian Empire in 1783, following the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774.^[97]^[98]

Early modern period

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

After the Union of Lublin in 1569 and the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Ukraine came under Polish administration, becoming part of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. This period marked a significant shift in the region's political and social landscape. Following the establishment of the Commonwealth, there was a renewed effort to colonize the lands of Ukraine, leading to the foundation of many new towns and villages. These developments also facilitated the expansion of connections between various Ukrainian regions, such as Halych Land (Galicia) and Volhynia, helping to strengthen internal links within the Ukrainian lands.^[99]

The Renaissance ideas began to permeate Ukrainian society, driven by the spread of new schools and institutions. Polish settlers arrived in large numbers, gradually mixing with the local population, and this led to a process of cultural assimilation. A significant portion of the Ukrainian nobility became 'polonised', adopting Polish customs, language, and converting to Roman Catholicism. Meanwhile, the majority of Ruthenian-speaking peasants remained loyal to the Eastern Orthodox Church, which caused growing social tensions. Polish influence extended not only politically but also culturally, as some polonized nobles, such as Stanisław Orzechowski, made notable contributions to Polish intellectual and cultural life.^{[citation needed]}

Control of the territory of Ukraine in 1600

At the same time, the harsh conditions imposed on Ruthenian peasants sparked widespread resistance. Those who fled serfdom sought freedom in the borderlands, where they became known as Cossacks. The Cossacks quickly gained a reputation for their martial prowess and independence. Some of them were enlisted by the Commonwealth to serve as soldiers, particularly in the defense of the southeastern borders against Tatar raids, while others participated in campaigns abroad, such as Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny, who played a key role in the Commonwealth's victory at the Battle of Khotyn in 1621.^[100]

Despite their contributions to the Commonwealth's military efforts, the Cossacks were consistently denied any substantial political or social autonomy. The ruling nobility of the Commonwealth viewed the Cossacks largely as a disruptive force and attempted to transform them into serfs. This ongoing marginalization and denial of rights fueled a series of Cossack uprisings, as they sought to defend their autonomy and way of life, ultimately setting the stage for more significant conflicts between the Cossacks and the Commonwealth.^[101]

Size and population of the voidoveships in the 16th century^[102]
Voivodeship		Square kilometers	Population (est.)
Galicia		45,000	446,000
Volhynia		42,000	294,000
Podilia		19,000	98,000
Bratslav		35,000	311,000
Kyiv		117,000	234,000
Belz (two regions)	Kholm	19,000	133,000
Belz (two regions)	Pidliassia	10,000	233,000

Cossack era

Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764)

The Cossack Hetmanate, also known as the Hetmanate of Ukraine, was a self-governing Cossack state that existed from 1649 to 1764. It emerged during a turbulent period in Eastern Europe, following the 1648 Ukrainian Cossack (Kozak) rebellion, or Khmelnytsky Uprising, which aimed to liberate Ukrainian lands from Polish-Lithuanian control. This uprising, led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky, destabilized the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and began an era of chaos in Ukrainian history known as the "Ruin" (referred to as "the Deluge" in Polish history). The newly-formed Cossack Hetmanate soon found itself caught in a complex web of military and diplomatic conflicts with the Ottoman Empire, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Tsardom of Muscovy.^[103]

Following a series of early military successes, the Treaty of Zboriv in 1649 officially established the Hetmanate as an autonomous entity within the Commonwealth. However, the region’s quest for stability remained elusive, and in 1654, the Zaporozhian Host, seeking to escape Polish influence, entered into the Pereiaslav Agreement with Tsardom of Muscovy. This treaty brought the Hetmanate under Moscow protection, altering the political landscape. Despite the initial hopes for autonomy, the Hetmanate soon faced challenges in maintaining its sovereignty as Moscow sought to expand its influence.^[103]

In an effort to regain control over Ukrainian territories, the Commonwealth attempted to compromise with the Cossack state through the Treaty of Hadiach in 1658. Yet, after thirteen years of continuous warfare, the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667 divided Ukraine between Poland and Muscovy, splitting the country along the Dnieper River. Right-bank Ukraine remained under Polish control, while left-bank Ukraine was incorporated into the Tsardom of Muscovy. Although the Hetmanate retained a degree of autonomy, this division marked the beginning of a long period of foreign dominance over Ukrainian lands.^[103]

The late 17th century was characterized by civil strife, foreign intervention, and territorial shifts. From 1657 to 1686, Ukraine endured constant conflict and war, with neighboring powers exploiting the instability. For example, Hetman Petro Doroshenko's efforts to control regions like Kyiv and Bratslav were thwarted when these areas fell under Turkish occupation. The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 ultimately returned much of this land to Polish control, although the Cossacks continued to assert their independence in regions such as Zaporizhzhia and Sloboda Ukraine, where semi-independent republics emerged on the Moscow frontier.^[104]

In addition to political turbulence, the Hetmanate played a significant role in the cultural and intellectual development of both Ukraine and Moscovy. Ukrainian clerics, scholars, and intellectuals, many of whom were educated at the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, contributed to major reforms in Moscow society, particularly during the reign of Peter the Great. Figures like Theophan Prokopovich and Stefan Yavorsky, both key members of the Most Holy Synod, influenced religious and cultural reforms, with the so-called "Ukrainian school" dominating Russian literature in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.^[105]^[106]

The Metropolis of Kyiv was also annexed by the Moscow Patriarchate in 1686, a significant moment in the religious history of Ukraine. This annexation by Moscow symbolized the growing cultural and political ties between Ukraine and Moscovy, although the Hetmanate’s leadership continued to struggle to preserve their autonomy.^[107]

The Hetmanate reached its peak of independence under Hetman Ivan Mazepa, who sought to align with Swedish Empire and break free from Russian dominance during the Great Northern War. However, Mazepa’s rebellion ended in disaster at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, after which Moscow control tightened significantly. The office of hetman was eventually abolished in 1764 under Catherine the Great, marking the official end of the Cossack Hetmanate and its institutions.^[108]^[109] Despite its eventual dissolution, the Hetmanate’s legacy endured, influencing both Ukrainian national identity and Russian political and cultural life.

Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich

During the 18th century, the Russian Empire steadily replaced its earlier "protection" over central Ukraine with direct control, gradually eroding the autonomy of the Cossacks. The Cossack uprisings, which had once been directed against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, now shifted focus to the Russian authorities. However, by the late 18th century, these uprisings had largely petered out, weakened by the overwhelming power of the Russian state and internal divisions within the Cossack ranks.^[110]

After the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, in which Ukrainian Cossacks played a vital role supporting the Russian Empire, a dramatic shift occurred. The Russian victory resulted in the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which granted Russia significant territorial gains along the Black Sea coast, as well as control over parts of the Ottoman Empire's sphere of influence. This victory, while strengthening Russia, diminished the strategic importance of the Zaporozhian Sich, as the borderlands the Cossacks had traditionally defended were now under Russian control. This geopolitical shift paved the way for the Sich’s destruction.^[111]

In 1775, Russian troops under General Peter Tekeli marched on the Zaporozhian Sich, following orders from Empress Catherine the Great. Catherine, intent on centralizing her empire and removing any threats to her power, saw the independent and militarized Cossack host as an obstacle. On June 15, 1775, after a swift operation, Tekeli’s forces, consisting of 8 cavalry regiments, 10 infantry regiments, 20 hussar squadrons, 17 pike squadrons, and 13 squadrons of Don Cossacks—totaling 45,000 troops—destroyed the Sich. Defended by a small garrison of only 3,000 Cossacks, the Sich fell quickly.^[112]

The last Kosh Otaman, Petro Kalnyshevsky, was arrested and exiled to the Solovetsky Islands in the far north, where he spent the remainder of his life in harsh conditions, dying in captivity. The destruction of the Sich marked the end of an era for the Cossack state, a symbol of Ukrainian independence and military prowess. Following the destruction, a smaller group of Cossacks fled to the lands of the Ottoman Empire, settling beyond the Danube, where they formed the Danubian Sich. Others relocated to the Kuban region in the Russian Empire, where they helped establish the Kuban Cossack Host. However, the majority of the Ukrainian Cossacks were deported to remote parts of the Russian Empire, including Siberia, in a move that sought to break their power and disperse their population. Cultural Loss: In addition to the loss of Cossack autonomy, the Russian troops seized over 30,000 documents, along with weapons and other valuables, representing the history of Ukraine from the 16th to the 18th centuries. These items were stored in the fortress of St. Elizabeth, which had been the primary military base of the Russian Imperial Army in Ukraine. The fortress itself held historical significance, having repelled the last slave raids by the Crimean Tatars and played a crucial role in the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. These historical artifacts remained in St. Elizabeth’s fortress until they were eventually transferred to Kyiv in 1918, providing valuable insights into the rich history of the Ukrainian Cossacks.^[113]^[114]^[115]

Cossack Mamay and the Haidamaka hang a Jew by his heels. Ukrainian folk art, 19th century.

Meanwhile, in right-bank Ukraine, dissatisfaction with Polish rule had been growing for decades. Increased corvée (forced labor) obligations, along with the abuse of power by Polish magnates, nobles, and their Jewish stewards, led to widespread unrest. The peasants, many of whom were Orthodox Christians, resented the imposition of taxes and labor on their lands, as well as the presence of Roman Catholic and Uniate clergy. The resulting discontent gave rise to a series of Haidamak uprisings, in which bands of rebels attacked and looted towns, targeting the estates of nobles, clergy, and Jewish populations. Major uprisings occurred in 1734, 1750, and the largest—known as Koliyivschyna—took place in 1768. This uprising was violently suppressed, but it revealed deep-seated resentment toward foreign rule in Ukraine.^[116]

By the end of the century, Catherine the Great’s policies had reshaped the political landscape of Ukraine. The Cossack's role in defending the borderlands was no longer necessary, as the Russian Empire now controlled the Black Sea and Crimea. In 1783, the Crimean Khanate was formally annexed by Russia, cementing control over the northern Black Sea region. A few years earlier, in 1778, a mass emigration of Christians from Crimea occurred, further altering the demographic balance of the region. Finally, in 1793, following the Second Partition of Poland, right-bank Ukraine was officially incorporated into the Russian Empire. By the end of Catherine’s reign, most of Ukraine had fallen under Russian control, bringing an end to the centuries-old struggle for autonomy and leaving the Ukrainian people under the rule of the Tsar.^[117]

Modern history

Empires and Ukrainian National Revival

Under the reign of Alexander I (1801–1825), the Russian presence in Ukraine was largely limited to the imperial army and its bureaucracy. However, by the reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), Russia had established a centralized administration in Ukraine. After suppressing the November Uprising of 1830, the tsarist regime implemented Russification policies, particularly on the Right-bank Ukraine.^[118]

The 1861 emancipation of serfs had a profound effect on Ukraine, as 42% of its population were serfs. By the late 19th century, heavy taxes, rapid population growth, and land shortages led to widespread impoverishment among the peasantry. Despite these hardships, Ukraine's steppe regions became crucial to the Russian Empire’s agricultural output, producing 20% of the world's wheat and 80% of the empire's sugar. Industrialization followed, with the first railway track laid in 1866, further integrating Ukraine’s economy into the Russian imperial system and fostering urban development.^[118]

Ukrainian national revival began in the late 18th century with the emergence of modern Ukrainian literature, spearheaded by Ivan Kotliarevsky. Prominent 19th-century Ukrainian authors included Taras Shevchenko, Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky, and Lesya Ukrainka in the Russian Empire, and Ivan Franko in Austria-Hungary. Fearing the rise of separatism, the Russian government imposed strict limits on Ukrainian language and culture. In 1863, the Valuev Circular banned the use of Ukrainian in religious and educational texts. Further repression came with the Ems Ukaz in 1876, which prohibited Ukrainian-language publications, the import of Ukrainian books from abroad, the use of Ukrainian in theater, and even public readings. Ukrainian schools were also suppressed. These policies of Russification and Panslavism prompted many Ukrainian intellectuals, such as Mykhailo Drahomanov and Mykhailo Hrushevsky, to flee to Austrian-ruled Western Ukraine. Despite this repression, some Ukrainians within the Russian Empire were able to achieve success, and many accepted the constraints imposed by the imperial government.^[119]

The fate of Ukrainians under the Austrian Empire was markedly different. In Austrian-ruled Galicia, Ukrainians found themselves in a delicate position within the broader Russian-Austrian rivalry for influence in Central and Southern Europe. Unlike in the Russian Empire, Galicia’s ruling elite were primarily of Austrian or Polish descent, while the Ruthenian population remained predominantly peasant. During the 19th century, Russophilia was initially common among Galicia’s Slavic population. However, the influx of Ukrainian intellectuals fleeing Russian repression, combined with Austrian intervention, gradually replaced Russophilia with a growing Ukrainophilia. This sentiment spread back into Russian-ruled Ukraine, fueling the national revival. The 2.4 million Ukrainians under Habsburg rule lived primarily in Eastern Galicia, with 95% of them being peasants. The region remained one of the poorest in Europe, and the Galician nobility consisted mostly of Poles or Polonized Ukrainians. Development in Galicia lagged behind that of Russian-ruled Ukraine, further exacerbating economic hardship.^[118]

Throughout the 19th century, a growing sense of Ukrainian national consciousness began to take shape. The intelligentsia increasingly represented commoners and peasants, as the influence of the nobility waned. This movement sought to achieve greater national rights and social justice but was quickly uncovered and suppressed by tsarist authorities. In 1848, following revolutionary revolutionary upheavals across Europe, Ukrainians in Galicia formed the Supreme Ruthenian Council and began advocating for autonomy. They also launched the first Ukrainian-language newspaper, Zoria halytska, further fueling the national awakening.^[120]

War of Independence (1917–1922)

When World War I and a series of revolutions across Europe, including the October Revolution in Russia, shattered many existing empires such as the Austrian and Russian ones, people of Ukraine were caught in the middle. Between 1917 and 1919, several separate Ukrainian republics manifested independence, Ukrainian People's Republic, Ukrainian State, West Ukrainian People's Republic, Makhnovshchina, Kholodny Yar Republic, Kuban People's Republic and numerous Bolshevik revkoms (Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets, Odessa Soviet Republic, Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic, Ukrainian Soviet Republic, Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic, Galician Soviet Socialist Republic and Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic).

Ukrainian People's Republic

The Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) was officially proclaimed on November 20, 1917, amidst the turmoil of the Russian Revolution and the disintegration of the Russian Empire. Initially, the Ukrainian Central Council (Rada), comprising influential Ukrainian political figures, pursued autonomy within a federated Russia. However, as the political situation in Russia grew increasingly unstable, the UPR took a decisive step by declaring full independence on January 22, 1918.^[121]

From its inception, the fledgling UPR faced significant challenges. Internally, political divisions among various factions, including socialists, nationalists, and federalists, complicated governance and decision-making. Economically, the nascent republic struggled with the transition from imperial control to an independent administration, resulting in shortages, inflation, and a weakened infrastructure. Externally, the UPR faced threats from multiple sides, primarily from the Bolsheviks, who regarded Ukraine as essential to their revolutionary agenda. As a result, they launched a series of military campaigns to assert control over Ukrainian territories, triggering prolonged and intense conflicts with UPR forces.^[122]

The first Bolshevik revkoms

As the Bolsheviks sought to expand their influence across the former territories of the Russian Empire, Ukraine became a significant battleground. In December 1917, amidst the chaos of the Russian Revolution and the collapse of imperial power, the Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets was proclaimed. This was a direct challenge to the Ukrainian People's Republic, which had declared its independence from the Russian Empire earlier that year. The UPR, led by nationalists and democrats, sought to build an independent Ukrainian state. In contrast, the Bolshevik-backed People's Republic of Soviets aimed to bring Ukraine under Soviet control and align it with the goals of the Russian Bolsheviks.^[123]

In March 1918, this newly established republic merged with two other short-lived Soviet republics in the region: the Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic and the Odessa Soviet Republic. These republics were formed by local Bolshevik groups seeking to establish Soviet power across key industrial and strategic regions of Ukraine. The result of this merger was the Ukrainian Soviet Republic, a state that was aligned with Soviet Russia and part of the larger efforts of the Bolsheviks to secure control over Ukraine during the chaotic period of civil war and foreign intervention. This period was marked by fierce conflicts between various Ukrainian factions, including the Ukrainian People's Republic, anarchists, and foreign powers, alongside the advancing Bolshevik forces, contributing to the overall instability of the region. When the Bolshevik troops retreated from the territory, on April 18, 1918, the Ukrainian Soviet Republic was officially dissolved.^[124]^[125]

Ukrainian State

Amid growing unrest, a coup d'état led by General Pavlo Skoropadskyi on April 29, 1918, dismantled the UPR and established the Ukrainian State, also known as the Hetmanate. Skoropadskyi, a former officer in the Russian Imperial Army, assumed the title of Hetman of all Ukraine, aiming to create a strong, centralized state with close ties to the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. His vision for the Hetmanate included restoring order, promoting economic development, and implementing agrarian reforms to stabilize the economy and society.^[126]

While the Hetmanate initially brought some stability, Skoropadskyi's alignment with the Central Powers and his authoritarian policies alienated many Ukrainians. Nationalists, socialists, and peasant groups grew increasingly discontented, perceiving his regime as prioritizing foreign interests over Ukrainian sovereignty. Additionally, Skoropadskyi's agricultural reforms, which often favored large landowners and reinstated some pre-revolutionary land policies, furthered resentment among the rural populace.^[127]

As the Central Powers began to crumble in late 1918 with their defeat in World War I, opposition to Skoropadskyi's rule surged. In November 1918, a coalition of anti-Hetmanate forces known as The Directorate, led by Symon Petliura, Volodymyr Vynnychenko, and other prominent Ukrainian leaders, initiated a successful uprising against Skoropadskyi’s government. By December 1918, Skoropadskyi was forced to abdicate, dissolving the Ukrainian State and restoring the Ukrainian People's Republic.^[128]

West Ukrainian People's Republic

Simultaneously, a separate Ukrainian state was established in the western part of the country. The West Ukrainian People's Republic (WUPR) was proclaimed on October 19, 1918, following the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This new state centered around Eastern Galicia, including the key city of Lviv, and extended into parts of Bukovina and Transcarpathia, areas with substantial Ukrainian populations. The WUPR government, led by Yevhen Petrushevych, aspired to build an independent Ukrainian state in Western Ukraine, distinct from both Polish and Russian influences.^[129]^[130]

The WUPR quickly developed its administrative structures, forming the Ukrainian Galician Army to defend its territories and introducing social and economic reforms to stabilize the new state. However, the WUPR’s claim over Eastern Galicia sparked immediate conflict with the re-established Polish state, which also sought control over the region. This territorial dispute erupted into the Polish-Ukrainian War (1918-1919), beginning with fierce fighting in Lviv, where Polish paramilitary forces resisted Ukrainian authority.^[131]

Although Ukrainian forces initially gained some ground, the Polish Army, bolstered by material support from the Entente Powers, soon regained momentum. By mid-1919, the Polish Army launched a major offensive, pushing back the Ukrainian Galician Army and regaining control over contested areas. Facing overwhelming opposition, WUPR forces retreated into Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) territory by July 1919, marking the end of the WUPR as an independent state.^[132]

Unification Act

In an effort to consolidate their positions during a tumultuous period, UPR and WUPR formally united on January 22, 1919, through the signing of the Unification Act (Act Zluky). This historic declaration symbolized the unification of the two republics into a single Ukrainian state. Despite its significance as a milestone for Ukrainian national aspirations, the unification remained largely symbolic in practice. The lack of effective integration between the UPR and WUPR resulted in minimal military coordination or mutual support. Both entities were preoccupied with their respective military challenges: the UPR was engaged in a desperate struggle against advancing Bolshevik forces, while the WUPR was embroiled in a conflict with Polish troops over territorial claims in Eastern Galicia.^[133]

Others states and anti-Bolshevik movements

The Makhnovshchina, which existed from 1918 to 1921, was a revolutionary anarchist movement in southern Ukraine led by Nestor Makhno. It emerged during the chaos of the Russian Civil War. The Makhnovists aimed to establish a stateless, self-managed society based on anarchist principles, where peasants and workers controlled the land and factories. Makhno's forces fought against various powers, including the Bolsheviks, the White Army, and foreign invaders. Despite initial successes, the movement was eventually crushed by the Bolsheviks.^[134]

The Kholodny Yar Republic, which existed from 1919 to 1922, was a small Ukrainian insurgent state located in the Chyhyryn region. It was formed by local resistance fighters and peasants who opposed both the Bolshevik Red Army and White Army forces during the Russian Civil War. Inspired by Ukrainian independence and nationalist ideals, the republic remained independent for a few years but was eventually overwhelmed by Bolshevik forces.^[135]^[136]

In May 1919, in central Ukraine began the Hryhoriv Uprising, largest anti-soviet Uprising in Ukraine, which was brutally suppressed by regular troops.^[137]

The Kuban People's Republic, which existed from 1918 to 1920, was a short-lived state established by Cossacks in the Kuban region, near the Black Sea. In the wake of the Russian Empire's collapse during the revolution, the Kuban Cossacks declared independence and formed the Kuban Rada to govern. Their goal was to preserve their cultural identity and retain control over their land amid the Russian Civil War. The republic allied with the White Army against the Bolsheviks and sought to unite with the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) due to shared Cossack heritage and mutual strategic interests. However, these negotiations never culminated in a formal union. Isolated, the republic fell to the advancing Bolshevik Red Army by 1920, ending its brief independence.^[138]^[139]^[140]

Continued struggle and exile of the UPR government

After being driven out of Kyiv by Bolshevik forces in early 1919, the UPR government, led by Symon Petliura, continued to resist Bolshevik advances and Polish encroachment. By 1920, facing insurmountable odds and a deteriorating military position, Petliura sought an alliance with Poland. In April 1920, the Treaty of Warsaw was signed, under which the UPR agreed to recognize Polish control over Western Ukraine in exchange for Polish military support against the Bolsheviks.^[141]

The joint Polish-Ukrainian campaign initially achieved some success, including the temporary recapture of Kyiv in May 1920. However, the Bolshevik counter-offensive soon pushed back the allied forces. The situation for the UPR became even more precarious when Poland sought a peace agreement with Soviet Russia, culminating in the signing of the Treaty of Riga in March 1921. The treaty effectively partitioned Ukraine, leaving most of its territory under Soviet control and the western parts under Polish administration.^[142]

With the signing of the Treaty of Riga, the UPR government went into exile, primarily in Poland and other European countries. Ukrainian leaders continued their efforts to advocate for Ukrainian independence in the international arena, but without a territorial base or significant military forces, their influence was limited. Symon Petliura, a key figure in the UPR, continued his political activities in exile until his assassination in Paris in 1926.^[143]

Canadian scholar Orest Subtelny says:

In 1919 total chaos engulfed Ukraine. Indeed, in the modern history of Europe no country experienced such complete anarchy, bitter civil strife, and total collapse of authority as did Ukraine at this time. Six different armies – those of the Ukrainians, the Bolsheviks, the Whites, the Entente [French], the Poles and the anarchists – operated on its territory. Kiev changed hands five times in less than a year. Cities and regions were cut off from each other by the numerous fronts. Communications with the outside world broke down almost completely. The starving cities emptied as people moved into the countryside in their search for food.^[144]

Historian Paul Kubicek says:

Between 1917 and 1920, several entities that aspired to be independent Ukrainian states came into existence. This period, however, was extremely chaotic, characterized by revolution, international and civil war, and lack of strong central authority. Many factions competed for power in the area that is today's Ukraine, and not all groups desired a separate Ukrainian state. Ultimately, Ukrainian independence was short-lived, as most Ukrainian lands were incorporated into the Soviet Union and the remainder, in western Ukraine, was divided among Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Romania.^[145]

Formation of the Ukrainian SSR

As both the UPR and WUPR faced defeat, the Bolshevik forces consolidated their control over Ukraine. On December 30, 1919, the Bolsheviks proclaimed the establishment of the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic (Ukrainian SSR), positioning it as a satellite of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). The new Soviet government aimed to establish complete Soviet authority over all Ukrainian territories, incorporating Ukraine into the broader framework of Soviet expansion.^[10]

The creation of the Ukrainian SSR marked the beginning of Soviet rule in Ukraine. Over the next two years, the Red Army systematically subdued remaining Ukrainian forces, nationalist resistance movements, and other anti-Bolshevik factions. By 1921, Bolshevik forces had largely crushed organized resistance, paving the way for the integration of the Ukrainian SSR as one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union in 1922.^[146]

Ukraine in Soviet Union (1922–1991)

Ukrainization and New Economic Policy

The Ukrainianization program aimed at fostering Ukrainian ethnic identity among the population of Ukraine. This 1921 recruitment poster uses Ukrainian orthography to convey its message, "Son, join the School of Red Commanders [uk], and the defense of Soviet Ukraine will be ensured".

In the 1920s, the Soviet government implemented a policy of "Ukrainization" as part of its broader strategy to strengthen support for the Soviet regime in non-Russian republics. This policy encouraged the use of the Ukrainian language in education, government, and media. Ukrainian culture and history were promoted to win over the local population and intellectual elite. Ukrainization allowed a degree of cultural revival after years of Russian dominance in Ukraine. Ukrainian literature, theater, and arts experienced significant growth, and schools began teaching in the Ukrainian language. However, this policy was carefully controlled by the Communist Party, ensuring that cultural development aligned with Soviet ideology.^[147]

Following the devastation of war and revolution, the Soviet government introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) to stabilize the economy. It represented a temporary retreat from pure socialist policies, allowing some elements of private enterprise and market mechanisms to function alongside state-controlled industries. The NEP had a mixed impact on Ukraine. On one hand, it allowed limited economic recovery, especially in agriculture and small-scale industry. Peasants were permitted to sell surplus products on the market, and small businesses could operate under certain conditions. On the other hand, large-scale industries remained under state control, and the heavy industrial sector, which Ukraine relied on, remained inefficient and slow to recover. While the NEP offered some relief to peasants, many remained suspicious of Soviet power, particularly after the harsh grain requisition policies during the civil war. Tensions between the peasantry and the Soviet regime continued to simmer.^[148]

During this period, the Communist Party tightened its control over Ukraine. The Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU) became a key instrument in enforcing Soviet policies and maintaining order. Political power was highly centralized, with decisions made in Moscow dictating policy in Ukraine. Despite the relative cultural freedom of Ukrainization, any political opposition to the Soviet regime was harshly repressed. Former nationalists, intellectuals, and opponents of Soviet power were marginalized, and any movement toward true Ukrainian autonomy was quickly suppressed.

In the early Soviet years, there was a strong emphasis on rebuilding Ukraine's war-ravaged economy. Ukraine was a critical industrial center, especially in coal, steel, and machinery production. While some infrastructure was rebuilt, economic challenges remained due to the inefficiency of state control and the lingering effects of war. Ukraine, being an agriculturally rich region, faced difficulties as the peasants were subjected to state control over grain production. Despite the NEP, rural areas continued to suffer from poverty, which would later fuel resistance to Soviet policies.^[149]

By the late 1920s, the NEP was being phased out as the Soviet Union prepared for a shift towards more centralized and state-controlled economic policies under Stalin. The focus was moving toward heavy industrialization and forced collectivization, setting the stage for the dramatic and tragic events of the 1930s, including the Holodomor. Although Ukrainization was relatively successful in the 1920s, by the end of the decade, Stalin's regime began to reverse this policy, with a focus on Russian centralization. The coming years would see a crackdown on Ukrainian nationalism and culture as part of Stalin's larger efforts to solidify control over the Soviet republics.

Forced collectivization, industrialization and Holodomor

In 1929, Joseph Stalin launched a campaign of forced collectivization across the Soviet Union, including Ukraine. The policy aimed to consolidate individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled collective farms (kolkhozes) to increase agricultural productivity and secure grain supplies for rapid industrialization. Ukrainian peasants, particularly wealthier ones known as "kulaks", resisted collectivization. The Soviet regime responded with brutal force, seizing land, livestock, and grain, and deporting or executing those who resisted. Collectivization led to widespread chaos in rural areas. Agricultural output plummeted due to poor planning, lack of incentives, and resistance from the peasantry. The disruption of traditional farming practices and the state's requisition of grain exacerbated food shortages.^[150]

In 1932-33, Holodomor, derived from the Ukrainian words for "hunger" (holod) and "extermination" (moryty), was a man-made famine that resulted from the Soviet government's grain requisition policies and punitive measures against those who resisted collectivization. Millions of Ukrainians died from starvation during the Holodomor. Entire villages were decimated, and the event remains one of the most tragic episodes in Ukrainian history. The Soviet government denied the famine's existence and continued exporting grain during the crisis. The Holodomor not only devastated the rural population but also weakened Ukrainian national identity and culture. It served as a stark warning against any resistance to Soviet authority.^[10]^{: §§ 8.1.3}^[151]^[152]

Stalin's economic strategy included a series of Five-Year Plans aimed at rapidly industrializing the Soviet Union. Ukraine, with its rich natural resources and strategic location, was a key focus of these plans. Ukraine became a major center for heavy industry, particularly in coal mining, steel production, and machine building. Cities like Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk (now Dnipro), and Stalino (now Donetsk) were transformed into industrial hubs. The rapid growth of industry led to significant urbanization. Millions of Ukrainians moved from rural areas to cities in search of work, fundamentally altering the demographic and social landscape.^[153]

Political repression and the Great Purge

Throughout the 1930s, Stalin's regime became increasingly marked by paranoia and a relentless drive to eradicate any perceived threats to his authority. This climate of suspicion fueled widespread political repression across the Soviet Union, profoundly impacting every layer of society in Ukraine. The purges specifically targeted Ukrainian intellectuals, artists, political leaders, and ordinary citizens suspected of harboring nationalist sympathies or potential dissenting views. Stalin’s objective was clear: to eliminate any possible source of opposition to Soviet rule, no matter how tenuous or imagined.^[154]

The Great Purge, reaching its zenith between 1936 and 1938, devastated Ukraine. During this period, tens of thousands were arrested, tortured, and executed, or sent to forced labor camps (the Gulag) in remote Soviet regions. The Ukrainian intelligentsia, initially supported during the Soviet policy of Ukrainization in the 1920s, became a particular target as they were increasingly viewed as a threat to Soviet ideological conformity. In a systematic crackdown, the NKVD, Stalin’s secret police, dismantled the Ukrainian cultural and intellectual community. Most members of this intelligentsia were either imprisoned, executed, or driven to despair and suicide. One notable site, the Slovo Building in Kharkiv, where many prominent Ukrainian intellectuals resided, became infamous as a place where residents were closely surveilled, then rounded up in these purges.^[155]^[156]

The terror also took a horrific toll on Kyiv, which became the capital of the Ukrainian SSR in 1934, replacing Kharkiv. Tens of thousands of Kyiv’s citizens were abducted by Soviet security forces, tortured, and summarily executed on fabricated charges. Victims were accused of treason, espionage, or nationalist activities without evidence and sentenced to death in sham trials. Their bodies were secretly buried in Bykivnia, a wooded area near Kyiv, which later became one of the largest mass grave sites in Ukraine. After Ukraine’s independence and the declassification of KGB archives, thousands of graves were discovered in Bykivnia, leading to the establishment of the Bykivnia Graves Memorial Complex. Soviet authorities had long denied the truth, claiming instead that Nazi atrocities had caused the mass burials.^[157]^[158]

These purges were marked by infamous show trials, where prominent figures were coerced, often through brutal interrogation, into confessing to invented charges of anti-Soviet activity. The loss of Ukraine's educated and skilled citizens stifled intellectual, cultural, and social progress for decades, creating a legacy of fear that has hampered Ukraine's development and left a scar that is remembered in Ukraine to this day.^[159]

World War II

The Second World War began on 1 September 1939, when Hitler invaded the Western part of Poland. Sixteen days later, the Soviet Union took most of Eastern Poland. Nazi Germany with its allies invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Between 4.5 and 6 million Ukrainians fought in the Soviet Army against the Nazis.^[160] Some Ukrainians initially regarded the Wehrmacht soldiers as liberators from Soviet rule, while others formed a partisan movement. Some elements of the Ukrainian nationalist underground formed a Ukrainian Insurgent Army that fought both Soviet forces and the Nazis. Others collaborated with the Germans. The pro-Polish trend in the Ukrainian national movement, declaring loyalty to the Second Polish Republic and in return demanding autonomy for Ukrainians (e.g. Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance), became marginalized, mainly due to its rejection by the Polish side, where supporters of forced assimilation of Ukrainians into Polish culture dominated.^[161] Some 1.5 million Jews were murdered by the Nazis during their occupation.^[162] In Volhynia, Ukrainian fighters committed a massacre against up to 100,000 Polish civilians.^[163] Residual small groups of the UPA-partizans acted near the Polish and Soviet border as long as to the 1950s.^[164] Galicia, Volhynia, South Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and Carpathian Ruthenia that were annexed as a result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in 1939 were added to the Ukrainian SSR.

Post-war Ukrainian SSR

After World War II, some amendments to the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of international law in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at the same time. In particular, these amendments allowed the Ukrainian SSR to become one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN) together with the Soviet Union and the Byelorussian SSR. This was part of a deal with the United States to ensure a degree of balance in the General Assembly, which, the USSR opined, was unbalanced in favor of the Western Bloc. In its capacity as a member of the UN, the Ukrainian SSR was an elected member of the United Nations Security Council in 1948–1949 and 1984–1985.^{[citation needed]} The Crimean Oblast was transferred from the RSFSR to the Ukrainian SSR in 1954.^[165]

The deportees were transported in such wagons.

During the famine of 1946-1947, the Soviet government confiscated the entire crop from the peasants, but the western regions were less affected by the famine due to the resistance of the UIA, which is why from western Ukraine several hundred thousand people and their families were most actively deported to Siberia by MSS of Soviet Union in 1947 during the Operation "West" (The report refers to 77,791 people: 18,866 men, 35,685 women and 23,240 minors),^[166]^[167] who later raised three major uprisings, one of them (the Norilsk Uprising when the majority of prisoners were Ukrainians) put an end to the Gulag system.^[168]^[169]^{[need quotation to verify]}

In the 1960s and 1980s, it was in Ukraine that the dissident movement gained momentum more actively than in the rest of the USSR. It was here that the largest number of people with other political views were imprisoned or suffered from punitive psychiatry.^[170]^[171]^{[need quotation to verify]}

The town of Pripyat, Ukraine was the site of the Chernobyl disaster, which occurred on 26 April 1986, when a nuclear plant exploded. The fallout contaminated large areas of northern Ukraine and even parts of Belarus. This spurred on a local independence movement called the Rukh that helped expedite the break-up of the Soviet Union during the late 1980s.^{[citation needed]}

Independent Ukraine (1991–present)

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine became an independent state, formalised with a referendum in December 1991. On 21 January 1990, over 300,000 Ukrainians^[172] organized a human chain for Ukrainian independence between Kiev and Lviv. Ukraine officially declared itself an independent country on 24 August 1991, when the communist Supreme Soviet (parliament) of Ukraine proclaimed that Ukraine would no longer follow the laws of USSR and only the laws of the Ukrainian SSR, de facto declaring Ukraine's independence from the Soviet Union. On 1 December, voters approved a referendum formalizing independence from the Soviet Union. Over 90% of Ukrainian citizens voted for independence, with majorities in every region, including 56% in Crimea. The Soviet Union formally ceased to exist on 26 December, when the presidents of Ukraine, Belarus and Russia (the founding members of the USSR) met in Białowieża Forest to formally dissolve the Union in accordance with the Soviet Constitution. With this, Ukraine's independence was formalized de jure and recognized by the international community.^{[citation needed]}

Also on 1 December 1991, Ukrainian voters in their first presidential election elected Leonid Kravchuk.^[173] During his presidency, the Ukrainian economy shrank by more than 10% per year (in 1994 by more than 20%).^[173] The presidency (1994–2005) of the 2nd President of Ukraine, Leonid Kuchma, was surrounded by numerous corruption scandals and the lessening of media freedoms, including the Cassette Scandal.^[173]^[174] During Kuchma's presidency, the economy recovered, with GDP growth at around 10% a year in his last years in office.^[173]

Orange Revolution and Euromaidan

In 2004, Kuchma announced that he would not run for re-election. Two major candidates emerged in the 2004 presidential election. Viktor Yanukovych,^[175] the incumbent Prime Minister, supported by both Kuchma and by the Russian Federation, wanted closer ties with Russia. The main opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, called for Ukraine to turn its attention westward and aim to eventually join the EU.

In the runoff election, Yanukovych officially won by a narrow margin, but Yushchenko and his supporters alleged that vote rigging and intimidation cost him many votes, especially in eastern Ukraine. A political crisis erupted after the opposition started massive street protests in Kiev and other cities ("Orange Revolution"), and the Supreme Court of Ukraine ordered the election results null and void. A second runoff found Viktor Yushchenko the winner. Five days later, Yanukovych resigned from office and his cabinet was dismissed on 5 January 2005.^{[citation needed]}

During the Yushchenko term, relations between Russia and Ukraine often appeared strained as Yushchenko looked towards improved relations with the European Union and less toward Russia.^[176] In 2005, a highly publicized dispute over natural gas prices with Russia caused shortages in many European countries that were reliant on Ukraine as a transit country.^[177] A compromise was reached in January 2006.^[177]

By the time of the presidential election of 2010, Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko—allies during the Orange Revolution^[178]—had become bitter enemies.^[173] Tymoshenko ran for president against both Yushchenko and Viktor Yanukovych, creating a three-way race. Yushchenko, whose popularity had plummeted,^[176] persisted in running, and many pro-Orange voters stayed home.^[179] In the second round of the election, Yanukovych won the run-off ballot with 48% to Tymoshenko's 45%.^[180]

During his presidency (2010–2014), Yanukovych and his Party of Regions were accused of trying to create a "controlled democracy" in Ukraine and of trying to destroy the main opposition party Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko, but both have denied these charges.^[181] One frequently cited example of Yanukovych's attempts to centralise power was the 2011 sentencing of Yulia Tymoshenko, which has been condemned by Western governments as potentially being politically motivated.^[182]

In November 2013, President Yanukovych did not sign the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement and instead pursued closer ties with Russia.^[183]^[184] This move sparked protests on the streets of Kyiv and, ultimately, the Revolution of Dignity. Protesters set up camps in Kyiv's Maidan Nezalezhnosti (Independence Square),^[185] and in December 2013 and January 2014 protesters started taking over various government buildings, first in Kyiv, and later in Western Ukraine.^[186] Battles between protesters and police resulted in about 80 deaths in February 2014.^[187]^[188]

Following the violence, the Ukrainian parliament on 22 February voted to remove Yanukovych from power (on the grounds that his whereabouts were unknown and he thus could not fulfil his duties), and to free Yulia Tymoshenko from prison. On the same day, Yanukovych supporter Volodymyr Rybak resigned as speaker of the Parliament, and was replaced by Tymoshenko loyalist Oleksandr Turchynov, who was subsequently installed as interim President.^[189] Yanukovych had fled Kyiv, and subsequently gave a press conference in the Russian city of Rostov-on-Don.^[190]

Western Integration

On 1 January 2016, Ukraine joined the DCFTA with the EU. Ukrainian citizens were granted visa-free travel to the Schengen Area for up to 90 days during any 180-day period on 11 June 2017, and the Association Agreement formally came into effect on 1 September 2017.^[191] Significant achievements in the foreign policy arena include support for anti-Russian sanctions, obtaining a visa-free regime with the countries of the European Union, and better recognition of the need to overcome extremely difficult tasks within the country. However, the old local authorities did not want any changes; they were cleansed of anti-Maidan activists (lustration), but only in part. The fight against corruption was launched, but was limited to sentences of petty officials and electronic declarations, and the newly established NABU and NACP were marked by scandals in their work. Judicial reform was combined with the appointment of old, compromised judges. The investigation of crimes against Maidan residents was delayed. In order to counteract the massive global Russian anti-Ukrainian propaganda of the "information war", the Ministry of Information Policy was created, which for 5 years did not show effective work, except for the ban on Kaspersky Lab, Dr.Web, 1С, Mail.ru, Yandex and Russian social networks VKontakte or Odnoklassniki and propaganda media. In 2017, the president signed the law "On Education", which met with opposition from national minorities, and quarreled with the Government of Hungary.^{[citation needed]}.^[192]

On 19 May 2018, Poroshenko signed a Decree which put into effect the decision of the National Security and Defense Council on the final termination of Ukraine's participation in the statutory bodies of the Commonwealth of Independent States.^[193]^[194] As of February 2019, Ukraine minimized its participation in the Commonwealth of Independent States to a critical minimum and effectively completed its withdrawal. The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine did not ratify the accession, i.e. Ukraine has never been a member of the CIS.^[195]

On 6 January 2019, in Fener, a delegation of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine with the participation of President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko received a Tomos on autocephaly. The Tomos was presented to the head of the OCU, Metropolitan Epiphanius, during a joint liturgy with the Ecumenical Patriarch.^[196] The next day, Tomos was brought to Ukraine for a demonstration at St. Sophia Cathedral. On 9 January, all members of the Synod of the Constantinople Orthodox Church signed the Tomos during the scheduled meeting of the Synod.^{[citation needed]}

On 21 February 2019, the Constitution of Ukraine was amended, with the norms on the strategic course of Ukraine for membership in the European Union and NATO being enshrined in the preamble of the Basic Law, three articles and transitional provisions.^[197]

On 21 April 2019, Volodymyr Zelenskyy was elected president in the second round of the presidential election. Early parliamentary elections on 21 July allowed the newly formed pro-presidential Servant of the People party to win an absolute majority of seats for the first time in the history of independent Ukraine (248). Dmytro Razumkov, the party's chairman, was elected speaker of parliament. The majority was able to form a government on 29 August on its own, without forming coalitions, and approved Oleksii Honcharuk as prime minister.^[198] On 4 March 2020, due to a 1.5% drop in GDP (instead of a 4.5% increase at the time of the election), the Verkhovna Rada fired Honcharuk's government and Denys Shmyhal^[199] became the new Prime Minister.^[200]

On 28 July 2020, in Lublin, Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine created the Lublin Triangle initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and further Ukraine's integration and accession to the EU and NATO.^[201]

On 17 May 2021, the Association Trio was formed by signing a joint memorandum between the Foreign Ministers of Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. Association Trio is tripartite format for the enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the European Union on issues of common interest related to European integration, enhancing cooperation within the framework of the Eastern Partnership, and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.^[202]

At the June 2021 Brussels Summit, NATO leaders reiterated the decision taken at the 2008 Bucharest Summit that Ukraine would become a member of the Alliance with the Membership Action Plan (MAP) as an integral part of the process and Ukraine's right to determine its own future and foreign policy without outside interference.^[203]

Ukraine was originally preparing to formally apply for EU membership in 2024, but instead signed an application for membership in February 2022.^[204]

Russo-Ukrainian War

In March 2014, the Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation occurred. Although official results of a referendum on Crimean reunification with Russia were reported as showing a large majority in favor of the proposition, the vote was organized under Russian military occupation and was denounced by the European Union and the United States as illegal.^[205]

The Crimean crisis was followed by pro-Russian unrest in east Ukraine and south Ukraine.^[206] In April 2014 Ukrainian separatists self-proclaimed the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic and held referendums on 11 May 2014; the separatists claimed nearly 90% voted in favor of independence.^[207]^[206] Later in April 2014, fighting between the Ukrainian army and pro-Ukrainian volunteer battalions on one side, and forces supporting the Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics on the other side, escalated into the war in Donbas.^[206]^[208] By December 2014, more than 6,400 people had died in this conflict, and according to United Nations figures it led to over half a million people becoming internally displaced within Ukraine and two hundred thousand refugees to flee to (mostly) Russia and other neighboring countries.^[209]^[210]^[211]^[212] During the same period, political (including adoption of the law on lustration and the law on decommunization) and economic reforms started.^[213] On 25 May 2014, Petro Poroshenko was elected president^[214] in the first round of the presidential election. By the second half of 2015, independent observers noted that reforms in Ukraine had considerably slowed down, corruption did not subside, and the economy of Ukraine was still in a deep crisis.^[213]^[215]^[216]^[217] By December 2015, more than 9,100 people had died (largely civilians) in the war in Donbas,^[218] according to United Nations figures.^[219]

On 2 February 2021, a presidential decree banned the television broadcasting of the pro-Russian TV channels 112 Ukraine, NewsOne and ZIK.^[220]^[221] The decision of the National Security and Defense Council and the Presidential Decree of 19 February 2021 imposed sanctions on 8 individuals and 19 legal entities, including Putin's pro-Russian politician and Putin's godfather Viktor Medvedchuk and his wife Oksana Marchenko.^[222]^[223]

The Kerch Strait incident occurred on 25 November 2018 when the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) coast guard fired upon and captured three Ukrainian Navy vessels attempting to pass from the Black Sea into the Sea of Azov through the Kerch Strait on their way to the port of Mariupol.^[224]^[225]

Throughout 2021, Russian forces built up along the Russia-Ukraine Border, in occupied Crimea and Donbas, and in Belarus.^[226] On 24 February 2022, Russian forces invaded Ukraine.^[227] Russia quickly occupied much of the east and south of the country, but failed to advance past the city of Mykolaiv towards Odesa, and were forced to retreat from the north after failing to occupy Kyiv, Chernihiv, Sumy, and Kharkiv.^[228] After failing to gain further territories and being driven out of Kharkiv Oblast by a fast-paced Ukrainian counteroffensive,^[229] Russia officially annexed the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic, along with most of the Kherson and Zaporizhzhia Oblasts on 30 September. The invasion was met with international condemnation. The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the invasion and demanding a full Russian withdrawal in March 2022. The International Court of Justice ordered Russia to suspend military operations and the Council of Europe expelled Russia. Many countries imposed sanctions on Russia and its ally Belarus, and provided humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine. The Baltic states all declared Russia a terrorist state. Protests occurred around the world, along with mass arrests of anti-war protesters in Russia, which also enacted a law enabling greater media censorship. Over 1,000 companies closed their operations in Russia and Belarus as a result of the invasion.^[230]

On the eve of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country was the poorest in Europe,^[231] a handicap whose cause was attributed to high corruption levels^[232] and the slow pace of economic liberalization and institutional reform.^[233]^[234]^[235]^[236] Russia's invasion of the country damaged Ukraine's economy and future prospects of improvement to such an extent, that the GDP of the country was projected to shrink by as much as 35% in its first year alone after the invasion.^[237]

National historiography

Knowledge about Ukraine in other parts of the world came chiefly from Russian secondary sources until relatively recently. After the second half of the seventeenth century, when Muscovy and later the Russian Empire came to control much of Ukrainian territory, Russian writers included Ukraine as part of Russian history. This included referring to medieval Kievan Rus' as "Kievan Russia" and its Old East Slavic culture and inhabitants as "Kievan Russian" or "Old Russian". Later Ukraine or its parts were called "Little Russia", "South Russia", "West Russia" (with Belarus), or "New Russia" (the Black Sea coast and southeastern steppe). But parts of Ukraine beyond Russia's reach were called Ruthenia and its people Ruthenians. The names chosen to refer to Ukraine and Ukrainians have often reflected a certain political position, and sometimes even to deny the existence of Ukrainian nationality.^[27]^: 10–11 The Russian point-of-view of Ukrainian history became the prevailing one in Western academia, and although the bias was identified as early as the 1950s, many scholars of Slavic studies and history believe significant changes are still necessary to correct the Moscow-centric view.^[238]

The scholarly study of Ukraine's history emerged from romantic impulses in the late 19th century when German Romanticism spread to Eastern Europe. The outstanding leaders were Volodymyr Antonovych (1834–1908), based in Kiev, and his student Mykhailo Hrushevsky (1866–1934).^[239] The first serious challenge to the Russian view of Ukraine was Hrushevsky's 1904 article "The Traditional Scheme of 'Russian' History and the Problem of the Rational organization of the History of the Eastern Slavs".^[240] For the first time full-scale scholarly studies based on archival sources, modern research techniques, and modern historical theories became possible. However, the demands of government officials—Tsarist, to a lesser degree Austro-Hungarian and Polish, and later Soviet—made it difficult to disseminate ideas that ran counter to the central government. Therefore, exile schools of historians emerged in central Europe and Canada after 1920.^{[citation needed]}

Strikingly different interpretations of the medieval state of Kievan Rus' appear in the four schools of historiography within Ukraine: Russophile, Sovietophile, Eastern Slavic, and Ukrainophile. In the Soviet Union, there was a radical break after 1921, led by Mikhail Pokrovsky. Until 1934, history was generally not regarded as chauvinistic, but was rewritten in the style of Marxist historiography. National "pasts" were rewritten as social and national liberation for non-Russians, and social liberation for Russians, in a process that ended in 1917. Under Stalin, the state and its official historiography were given a distinct Russian character and a certain Russocentrism. Imperial history was rewritten such that non-Russian love caused an emulation and deference to "join" the Russian people by becoming part of the (tsarist) Russian state, and in return, Russian state interests were driven by altruism and concern for neighboring people.^[241] Russophile and Sovietophile schools have become marginalized in independent Ukraine, with the Ukrainophile school being dominant in the early 21st century. The Ukrainophile school promotes an identity that is mutually exclusive of Russia. It has come to dominate the nation's educational system, security forces, and national symbols and monuments, although it has been dismissed as nationalist by Western historians. The East Slavic school, an eclectic compromise between Ukrainophiles and Russophilism, has a weaker ideological and symbolic base, although it is preferred by Ukraine's centrist former elites.^[242]

Many historians in recent years have sought alternatives to national histories, and Ukrainian history invited approaches that looked beyond a national paradigm. Multiethnic history recognises the numerous peoples in Ukraine; transnational history portrays Ukraine as a border zone for various empires; and area studies categorises Ukraine as part of East-Central Europe or, less often, as part of Eurasia. Serhii Plokhy argues that looking beyond the country's national history has made possible a richer understanding of Ukraine, its people, and the surrounding regions.^[243] since 2015, there has been renewed interest in integrating a "territorial-civic" and "linguistic-ethnic" history of Ukraine. For example, the history of the Crimean Tatars and the more distant history of the Crimea peninsula is now integrated into Ukrainian school history. This is part of the constitutionally mandated "people of Ukraine" rather than "Ukrainian people". Slowly, the histories of Poles and Jews are also being reintegrated. However, due to the current political climate caused by territorial sovereignty breaches by Russia, the role of Russians as "co-host" has been greatly minimized, and there are still unresolved difficult issues of the past, for example, the role of Ukrainians during the Holodomor.^[244]^: 98

After 1991, historical memory was a powerful tool in the political mobilization and legitimation of the post-Soviet Ukrainian state, as well as the division of selectively used memory along the lines of the political division of Ukrainian society. Ukraine did not experience the restorationist paradigm typical of some other post-Soviet nations, for example the three Baltic countries—Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia—although the multifaceted history of independence, the Orthodox Church in Ukraine, Soviet-era repressions, mass famine, and World War II collaboration were used to provide a different constitutive frame for developing Ukrainian nationhood. The politics of identity (which includes the production of history textbooks and the authorization of commemorative practices) has remained fragmented and tailored to reflect the ideological anxieties and concerns of individual regions of Ukraine.^[245]

Canadian historiography on Ukraine

In Soviet Ukraine, twentieth-century historians were strictly limited in the range of models and topics they could cover, with Moscow insisting on an official Marxist approach. However, émigré Ukrainians in Canada developed an independent scholarship that ignored Marxism, and shared the Western tendencies in historiography.^[246] George W. Simpson and Orest Subtelny were leaders promoting Ukrainian studies in Canadian academe.^[247] The lack of independence in Ukraine meant that traditional historiographical emphases on diplomacy and politics were handicapped. The flourishing of social history after 1960 opened many new approaches for researchers in Canada; Subtelny used the modernization model. Later historiographical trends were quickly adapted to the Ukrainian evidence, with special focus on Ukrainian nationalism. The new cultural history, post-colonial studies, and the "linguistic turn" augmenting, if not replacing social history, allowed for multiple angles of approach. By 1991, historians in Canada had freely explored a wide range of approaches regarding the emergence of a national identity. After independence, a high priority in Canada was assisting in the freeing of Ukrainian scholarship from Soviet-Marxist orthodoxy—which downplayed Ukrainian nationalism and insisted that true Ukrainians were always trying to reunite with Russia. Independence from Moscow meant freedom from an orthodoxy that was never well suited to Ukrainian developments. Scholars in Ukraine welcomed the "national paradigm" that Canadian historians had helped develop. Since 1991, the study of Ukrainian nation-building became an increasingly global and collaborative enterprise, with scholars from Ukraine studying and working in Canada, and with conferences on related topics attracting scholars from around the world.^[248]

Notes

^ East bank of Kalmius river (Eastern Donbas) gained in 1920, partially (Okrug Taganrog and Shakhty) returned back in 1924; Volhynia gained (1939); Transnistria lost (1940); Transcarpatia gained (1945); Snake Island gained (1948); Crimea gained (1954)

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Bibliography

Surveys and reference

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Kononenko, Konstantyn. Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654–1917 (Marquette University Press 1958).
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1930s, World War II

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Brandon, Ray, and Wendy Lower, eds. (2008). The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization. 378 pp. online review.
Conquest, Robert (1986). The Harvest Of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivisation and the Terror-Famine
Gross, Jan T. (1988). Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia
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Kudelia, Serhiy. (2013). "Choosing Violence in Irregular Wars: The Case of Anti-Soviet Insurgency in Western Ukraine", East European Politics and Societies 27#1 pp. 149–181.
Lower, Wendy, (2005). Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine. University of North Carolina Press
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Redlich, Shimon (2002). Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945. Indiana University Press
Zabarko, Boris, ed. (2005). Holocaust in the Ukraine. Mitchell Vallentine & Co.

Recent history

Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul. (2006). Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough
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Historiography and memory

von Hagen, Mark (1995). "Does Ukraine Have a History?". Slavic Review. 54 (3): 658–673. doi:10.2307/2501741. ISSN 0037-6779. Wikidata Q113708200.
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Hrushevskyi, Mykhailo (1904). "The traditional scheme of 'Russian' history and the problem of a rational organization of the history of the East Slavs". Articles on Slavistics (in Ukrainian). 1, 2 (55, 2): 35–42, 355–364. Wikidata Q28703759.
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Reid, Anna. "Putin's War on History: The Thousand-Year Struggle Over Ukraine" Foreign Affairs (May/June 2022) 101#1 pp. 54–63. excerpt^{[permanent dead link]}
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Velychenko, Stephen, National history as cultural process: a survey of the interpretations of Ukraine's past in Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian historical writing from the earliest times to 1914 (Edmonton, 1992).
Velychenko, Stephen, Shaping identity in Eastern Europe and Russia: Soviet-Russian and Polish accounts of Ukrainian history, 1914–1991 (London, 1993).
Verstiuk, Vladyslav. "Conceptual Issues in Studying the History of the Ukrainian Revolution". Journal of Ukrainian Studies 24.1 (1999): 5–20.
Wade, Rex A., "The Revolution At Ninety-(One): Anglo-American Historiography Of The Russian Revolution Of 1917", Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography 1.1 (2008): vii-42.
Yekelchyk, Serhy. "Studying the Blueprint for a Nation: Canadian Historiography of Modern Ukraine". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies 5.1 (2018).

Teaching and study guides

John Vsetecka, "Integrating Scholarship on Ukraine into Classroom SyllabiLet Ukraine Speak: Integrating Scholarship on Ukraine into Classroom Syllabii".
Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, "Teaching and Studying Ukraine: List of Resources".

Primary sources in English

Luckyj, George S. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995 (1996).

Ukrainian language

Essays on History on Ukraine.
- Volume 1 by Natalia Yakovenko, "From the Earliest Times until the End of the 18th Century".
- Volume 2: Ярослав Грицак (Yaroslav Hrytsak) (1996). Формування модерної української нації XIX-XX ст. (Formation of the Modern Ukrainian Nation in the late 19th–20th centuries). Kyiv: Генеза (Heneza). ISBN 966-504-150-9.. Available online.

External links

Media related to History of Ukraine at Wikimedia Commons

History of Ukraine: Primary Documents (weblist)
History of Ukraine: 10 complete books
Ukrainian history overview published in Den' (in Ukrainian).

[146] East bank of Kalmius river (Eastern Donbas) gained in 1920, partially (Okrug Taganrog and Shakhty) returned back in 1924; Volhynia gained (1939); Transnistria lost (1940); Transcarpatia gained (1945); Snake Island gained (1948); Crimea gained (1954)

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v t e History of Europe
Prehistory	Paleolithic Europe Neolithic Europe Bronze Age Europe Iron Age Europe
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See also	Art of Europe Bibliography of European history Genetic history of Europe History of Christianity History of the Mediterranean region History of the European Union History of Western civilization Maritime history of Europe Military history of Europe Crusading movement

v t e History of current European countries
Sovereign states	Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City
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